© 1997 by Allen A. Debus

You can always tell it's a slow news week when you see articles like, "Did comets kill the dinosaurs?". Here's a hot topic -- who's got time for this? Hey, what happened to the dinosaurs? Weren't they just here? Maybe comets killed the dinosaurs, maybe they tripped and fell. What's the difference? We'll never know. We couldn't solve the Kennedy Assassination, we had films of that. Good luck with the Stegosaurus. "Round up all these reptiles for questioning, Bill. I want to talk with that salamander there. I think he knows something. Don't stick out your tongue at me, young man. I'll nail your slimy little butt to the wall."(Jerry Seinfeld, in Seinlanguage, 1993, pp. 117-118).

"How shall we draw the geometry of contingency? How else may we draw the history of life, so that we may come closer to meeting our ancestors face to face and may even probe pictorially into our own psyches to release the potential thoughts that lie even too deep for tears?"(Stephen J. Gould, "Ladders and Cones: Constraining Evolution by Canonical Icons", in Hidden Histories of Science, 1995, p.67).

In 1980, when the prospect of asteroid catastrophe was connected to the ultimate fate of the dinosaurs, the art of expressing "contingency" in life's history became an important theme in "paleo-art". One may contend that this development represents one of the most significant innovations in the realm of dinosaur paleo-art since Robert Bakker introduced his vigorously active dinosaurs in the late 1960s.

Ignoring earlier practitioners who portrayed the Biblical Deluge in the context of a geological event, few 20th century artists dared to portray pivotal episodes in the history of life. This is because most scientists claimed that life evolved gradually and species succumbed to extinction gradually, in accordance with the principle of uniformitarianism. In other words, there were no geologically instantaneous "moments" that could be considered "pivotal". Time was immense, and at any given moment, there was little happening that would impact the overall destiny of many species, especially instants which would be considered worthy of illustration.

Even in the early days of pre-1840s "catastrophist geology" , illustrations of mass extinction events were rarely done. Certainly there were other underlying (and contrasting) factors for this. Yet the fact remains that it is the 1980 asteroid theory, and no other, which inspired the art of exclusively restoring dinosaur extinctions.

By the late 1970s, certain geological catastrophes were viewed as real events, and some of these were even regarded as extraterrestrial in nature. It is interesting to note the transformation of scientific ideas as expressed on canvas by (modern) "paleoartists".

In a mid-20th-century example, Walt Disney's "Fantasia", (1940), dinosaurs thirst in a dusty age, an environmental condition resulting from largely unexplained causes. In other cases we see volcanoes and pesty little mammals doing their part to exterminate the once mighty race. One famous example is the Cretaceous end of Rudolph F. Zallinger's "Age of Reptiles" (1947) 110-foot-long mural (exhibited in the Peabody Museum at Yale University), where we see a smoldering volcano signaling the dinosaur's impending doom.

An illustration by Neave Parker, entitled, "The Last Days of the Dinosaurs" (1960) (originally published in the March 5, 1960 issue of the Illustrated London News, pp. 402-403) blends ideas. Here we see North American dinosaur species in the center of the canvas. But look out! Smoking volcanoes foul the air and the foreground is dotted with those darn (yet "superior") mammals, destined to survive! Extinction is obviously imminent with this combination creating unholy havoc in the upper Cretaceous.

More recently, and perhaps because we no longer regard the mammals-as-agents-of-dinosaur-extinction theory quite as seriously as formerly may have been the case, the theme of mammals annoying dinosaurs has been satirized in several illustrations. Two shall be mentioned. For instance, take a look at Robert Bakker's illustration on page 96 of his Dinosaur Heresies (1986), where the mammals are used to accentuate the idea that dinosaurs were not cold- blooded animals. And then, we note the cartoon appearing on page 718 of the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, (Vol. 15, no.4, 1995), by Jim Whiteraft, showing how the formidable T. rex, could be so easily tripped to his death by a strange critter, resembling Mighty Mouse without a cape. Such devices are on par with a host of Gary Larson's similar "Far Side" sketches focusing on the dinosaurs' ultimate peril, such as the one bearing the caption, "The real reason the dinosaurs went extinct", showing a trio of ("way too cool for the Marlboro Man") dinosaurs puffing on cigarettes. These cartoons show us the lives of only a few dinosaurs, yet, in fact, do effectively symbolize the fate of an entire race.

Despite the former popularity of the "ice age" theory, in which cold- blooded dinosaurs were thought to have perished in an episode of global cooling at the end of the Mesozoic, there are few notable illustrations cultivating this idea.

Many of you may have forgotten the fact that during the 1960s and 1970s, the supernova theory for extinction of the dinosaurs was popularized and promoted by several scientists, most notably by dinosaur expert, Dale Russell. Thus, the prospect for cosmic catastrophe became introduced into the spectrum of modern paleoart, as evident in Ely Kish's (undated) painting of a dying ankylosaur singed by the searing rays of a nearby supernova. (See pp. 208-209 of Edwin H. Colbert's Dinosaurs: An Illustrated History, 1982). However, Colbert was not endorsing the theory, as his caption reads, "Did the explosion of a supernova 65 mya, with consequent high energy radiation, cause the extinction of the dinosaurs? If so, why did so many other forms of life survive the crisis?" Don Davis also depicted a supernova irradiating unwitting dinosaurs, which was published in Carl Sagan's Cosmos, 1980.

The skies became angrier as the decade of the dinosaur fell into full swing. A revolution in science, in turn, sparked an entirely new art of "paleocatastrophe". We were alerted to the most convincing theory ever proposed linking extinctions with impacts, the "asteroid theory" of 1980, followed by other scientific cosmic "spin offs". Few images have been made of the several other major mass extinctions events, possibly because these did not feature the familiar dinosaurian cast, and also possibly because the causes may have been less geologically 'instantaneous', or nonextraterrestrial in nature. An exception is the animated segment of a televised documentary concerning the asteroid impact event which occurred during the Upper Triassic, forming Canada's 210-million-year-old Manicouagan crater. Also, a series of paintings by Jay Matternes portrayed a local (decidedly not a cosmic) event, the one entombing many species of prehistoric mammals 10 mya at Ashfall, Nebraska. (See National Geographic, Vol. 159, no.1, January, 1981).

Focusing on the canvas restorations, illustrations eerily portrayed doomed dinosaurs gazing into the heavens as a fatal streak of light shines above (or streaks of light, reflecting the possibility that Oort cloud comet showers glimmered in late Cretaceous night skies). As a Velociraptor thoughtfully gazes into the celestial solitude in Jon Lomberg's painting, (found in Comet, by Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan, 1985, p. 293), a streaming comet shower symbolizes abrupt termination of the dinosaurs' evolutionary ascendancy toward heightened intelligence. John Gurche, David Hardy, Bob Walters, Jack Arata and others have also produced striking images of the impending event. (Perhaps the latest entry, by John Sibbick, showing duckbills eyeing a "Christmas star" appearing suspiciously as a comet of doom streaking across the heavens, was released as a 1996 Christmas card, courtesy of the UK Dinosaur Society -- picture at left).

Others have chosen to portray the moment of impact (or just instants before), as well as the horrific side effects. My favorite examples? John Dawson's painting, showing snarling dinosaurs turning away from the brilliant fireball, adorns the cover of Kenneth Hsu's book The Great Dying: Cosmic Catastrophe, Dinosaurs, and the Theory of Evolution, 1986.

Another is Ely Kish's composite painting of the K/T impact, which was reproduced in Dale Russell's An Odyssey In Time: The Dinosaurs of North America, (1989). Russell described how artist Kish designed this painting, which must be regarded as the finest example of its kind, in his contribution to Volume I of Dinosaurs Past and Present (1986). In his 1989 book, Russell provided a description, "It seemed to hang in the sky like a second moon, or the eye of God, but no dinosaur looked at it with understanding. It suddenly swelled in the sky, and then a dark mantle spread across the firmament. Why did it have to be this way?" Douglas Henderson's similar painting found in Dinosaurs: A Global View, (1990), pp. 233, must also be mentioned.

Whereas paleoartists traditionally portrayed the extent of geologic time through billions of years, reflecting "idealized" landscapes while introducing minimal speculation, recent artists have strived to capture the brief time line of the event -- moments before, through minutes or hours afterward. A sequence of depictions by several artists found in chapters 25 and 26 of Comet, 1985, leaves little to the imagination of the horror and magnitude experienced through all phases of such catastrophes!

Geophysical events now thought to have been triggered by the impact, such as the enormous tidal wave splashing ashore in the Caribbean region in K/T time, are also envisioned. Mark Hallett's contribution to Zoobooks, (Vol.1, no.9, June, 1985) included a painting which instructively illustrated geophysical "domino effects" caused in the aftermath of impact (i.e. tidal waves, volcanic eruptions on a grand scale). Kudos also to artist Karen Carr for her splendid portrayal of the tsunami scene in Louis Jacobs' Lone Star Dinosaurs, 1995!

(Rarely are theories competing with the impact theory ever portrayed. Some of you may recall a children's instructional book on an unusual theme, entitled Time Machine 22: Last of the Dinosaurs (1988), by Peter Lerangis. The book thoughtfully challenges readers to consider a variety of factors possibly leading to extinction of the dinosaurs in the late Cretaceous. This book was nicely illustrated by Douglas Henderson.)

Douglas Henderson also depicted the Deccan Traps volcanic eruptions for Dinosaurs: A Global View, and in Joseph Wallace's The Rise and Fall of the Dinosaur, 1987, pp. 118-119, we see Henderson's painting of dinosaurs expiring in the fallout from a volcanic eruption. However, upon closer inspection of the latter, it is noted that the caption does not correspond to the illustration. Henderson restored a local catastrophe, the demise of a population of Maiasaura, which took place millions of years before the K/T event in Montana. However, the caption exaggerated the purpose of the painting, extrapolating the local to a global event. "Violent volcanic activity may have sent great clouds of ash skyward, choking plant life and small animals, and condemning the great dinosaurs to extinction." This was probably done for lack of other restorations available to illustrate the volcanically founded extinctions alternatives.

I think it is significant that the Old Masters of "paleoart" (prior to 1950) did not sketch Life at the Crossroads. The theoretical base and weight of evidence weren't there. Artists would have been wasting their time, in the eyes of scientists. Still, I wonder how Charles R. Knight's rendition of the K/T boundary event would have appeared? Certainly Knight's great contemporary, Chesley Knight Bonestell, widely recognized as the father of "Space Art", was no stranger to envisioning how cosmic catastrophes (both in space as well as on earth) might have appeared to human observers. Yet, terrestrial catastrophes were conventionally unaccepted.

Why all the fuss? First, is the prospect for sudden, dramatic change in the history of our planet. The comet plunges into the seas, and, literally, it is claimed, in an instant, the entire course of future history is (unpredictably) altered. Philosophically, it is difficult to conceive that the modern biosphere may be the product of iterative, randomly catastrophic episodes!

Another possible, psychologically-founded fascination with the prospect of extraterrestrially-caused mass extinctions is that for many of us, years ago, the world seemed poised on the brink of nuclear holocaust. Just as a missile bearing a hydrogen bomb would have brought sudden death from the skies, so can a large asteroid end our days at the end of its trajectory. The only safe way to experience the (geological) event is to witness it in artists' portrayals, or to view it from afar as astronomers did during the summer of 1994, when fragments of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 slammed into Jupiter.